Wooden Wheel Barrow

 This is going to be a long-term project as I intend to use greenwood for the wheel. A good book giving some details of an early wheelbarrow design written in 1917: "The Complete Woodworker" edited by Bernard E. Jones on pages:349-352. Interestingly he starts by saying that "the greatest drawback to the ordinary wheelbarrow is that more than half the weight of the load and barrow are borne by the arms and shoulders of the user." The design he illustrates allows the greater part of the load over the wheel and "is much easier to handle, and therefore more suitable for female farm-workers and gardeners and amateurs generally, the greater part of the load being carried over the wheel, thus taking much weight off the arms. In fact, in some Chinese wheel barrows the wheel is placed in the centre so that the load is directly over the wheel. The barrow illustrated in Bernard Jones's book, is also shorter than modern versions, and narrow enough to pass through a 2 ft 6 in. doorway with deep sides, being desirable features for stable use. Unfortunately, he does not give much information about the construction of the wheel (the author advises to get the wheel from a wheelwright) but does give some dimensions and that it is constructed as four spokes (or two straight through spokes) one rectangular and the other square rather than round.

I chose to adopt Bernard Jones' design with minor modifications in construction and materials. As the wheel components dried over the summer, I purchased kiln-dried ash for the chassis elements (excluding the main barrow). The design intent for the wheelbarrow was to enable easy disassembly for storage purposes when not in use.

Making the Felloes and Spokes.

The felloes are the pieces that make up the rim of the wheel. The four felloes were crafted from green ash that was felled in January 2024. The trunks of the ash, approximately 16 cm in diameter, were split  and then fashioned into rectangular slabs, roughly 9 cm wide, 5 cm thick, and 33 cm long, using a carving axe and a froe before being set aside to dry.

The green felloes left to dry.

I had originally planned to use eight spokes to connect the felloes and the hub but after reading the account by Jack Hill ( The Complete Practical Book of Country Crafts, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, UK, p 133.) about traditional wooden wheel barrows in England made with four spokes, I decided to follow that design. Although there are four spokes, they are really two pieces of wood that pass through the centre of the hub to connect to the four felloes. These two pieces are quite different. One is rectangular in the centre (3 inches by 1 inch) passing through the hub and then tapered at both ends to cylindrical spokes that pass through the felloes. The other is one spindle that passes through the hub and the rectangle section of the spoke to fix into the rim. 

I made the rectangular-sectioned spoke from a single piece of ash, split from a trunk and roughly shaped with a drawknife and axe. I levelled one wider face with a roughing plane and a smoothing plane. The opposite face was reduced to a thickness of 30 mm using a kerfing plane and a rip-frame saw, then finished with a smoothing plane. The narrower faces were planed to achieve a final size of 60 mm in width, 26 mm in thickness, and 450 mm in length. The final shaping will occur after the ash has dried. Although narrower than the 3 inches (75 mm) specified in Jack Hill's book, I believe this variance is not critical. The spoke ends will be trimmed to 25 mm on the pole lathe once the wood is dry.

Rectangular spoke left to dry. The two ends will be shaped to cylinders after is has dried.

The other spoke was prepared from a section of cleaved ash by cutting and shaping on the spindle lathe. This was about 30 mm diameter and will be adjusted to 25 mm after it has dried.

The spokes were made from the air dried ash that had previously been  roughly shaped. The rectangular cross-sectioned spoke was shaped at each end ready for mounting on the pole lathe. The ends were turned down to 7/8 inch diameter for the first 3 inches and then shaped using a spokeshave being careful to keep the rectangular section in the middle that will go through the hub mortice.

Shaping the ends of the rectangular spoke.

Spoke when near completion. The ends are 7/8 inch diameter.

When dry, the felloes were cut to shape. This was aided using a piece of underlaid plywood with a drawing of the wheel and 1/8 segments. Another piece of plywood was cut to the shape of a felloe and was used to mark the shape onto the ash dried sections. One face of each felloe was chosen to make flat and planed and checked with a ruler and winding sticks. The shape of the felloe was then drawn onto the flat face and then the outside edge was sawn leaving a little waste to plane to the exact shape needed. The outside edge was then planed to the line making sure it was perpendicular to the other edge. After this the inside edge was drawn, sawn and planed as needed. Finally the width of the felloe was marked to 40 mm and sawn to the line and then planed smooth.

A felloe clamped for sawing.

Sawing a felloe, hard work with a lot of further planing to get the right shape.

A felloe prepared and compared with the plywood underlay to check the shape. The underlay will also be used to mark the centres of the felloes and the positions of the axle through the hub.

The rim of four felloes braced to check the size before marking the spoke positions.

 

Drilling a felloe for a spoke tang to fit. 

Making the Hub and Connecting the Spokes and Felloes.

Ash trunk used to make the hub.

The hub was made from a trunk of ash using a draw-knife and axe in preparation for mounting on the pole lathe. Traditionally, the hubs were made using elm but this is now hard to come by. The size was adjusted so that the central part of the hub was 77 mm in diameter and the ends were 58 mm in diameter. Final refinements will be made after the wood has dried.

Hub after initial lathing. The cylinder on the left is just surplus wood. The central cylinder is 77 mm in diameter for a length of about 80 mm. The ends are 58 mm in diameter and the total width of the hub is 300 mm.

The hub was left to dry in the workshop and the mass measured at intervals over the summer of 2024. All greenwood parts had their end-grain sealed with wax before storage to reduce the chance of splitting and to minimise distortion. 

3 rd May: 1425g and 4 th June: 1290 g indicating a loss of 1350 g, i.e. 9% of original mass. On 8 July it weighed 1230 g and 1234 on 23 July indicating about 13 % loss in mass. It weighed 1236 g on 15 th August indicating it had equilibrated with the atmosphere and was ready for further work. For this purpose, the piece was returned to the lathe and the diameter was reduced to accommodate the fitting of the steel rims as shown below. I attempted to heat them before installation but discovered that it made very little difference to the fitting. This is probably because of the small diameters of the rim and so their expansion on heating was small.

Hub with the steel rims fitted and ready for the axle stubs to be fitted. The piece of wood on the right is the wood that will be shaped for the first through spoke.

The positions of the spokes through the hub were marked by drilling a hole in the underlaid plywood (see the description of making the wheel felloes below) and setting the hub upright through the hole so that the spoke positions were diametrically opposite and at right angles to each other.

Marking the hub for drilling and morticing for the spokes.

The hub through-mortice was started by carefully marking the rectangles on both faces of the hub and then drilling 1/2 inch auger hole through the centre, starting from each side and meeting in the middle. Further smaller holes were drilled to roughly define the mortice. The rest of the mortice was chiselled from each side and then the spoke inserted in stages to get a close fit.

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The second ash spoke was finished on the pole lathe and adjusted to 7/8 th inch diameter. The mortice for the spoke was drilled using a number 13 (13/16 th inch diameter) auger being careful to meet in the centre of the hub. The spoke diameter was trimmed to get a close fit in the mortice

Having drilled the hub for the spokes, the felloes were drilled for the tangs. The rectangular spoke was fitted into the hub and the felloes laid in position for the tang positions to be marked and then drilled as shown above. Once the rectangular spoke was fitted, the cylindrical spokes were marked with the felloes in place. Great care is needed in getting the correct angles, positions and level of the drill holes. The wheel was then assembled, tightened and planed to its final shape ready  fitting the steel rim.

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Finished wheel without the steel rim fitted.

The iron rim for the wheel was cold bent to a circle of approximately 400 mm diameter. To do this I made a semi-circular former of thick pine and using clamps bent the rim around the former as shown:

Forming the mild steel rim using a former and clamps.

Construction of the chassis.

The plan for the chassis was drawn from the information given in "The Complete Woodworker". The angle of the strines (the two arms of the wheelbarrow) was calculated as 5 degrees from horizontal. 

Sketch of chassis of the wheel barrow. Dimensions in mm.

Kiln dried ash was purchased as follows:

Strines: 50 x 70 x 1200 mm @2

Sloates: 34 x 67 x1200 mm @1 (these are the two bars on the bed between the strines).

Legs: 50 x 50 x1200 mm @2

Standards: 34 x 45 x 1200 @1 (two standards to support sides at the front sloat).

In addition the following ironware was purchased:

Bolts for hub/wheel: 2@ M16 by 150 mm long, stainless steel.

Bolts for legs and standards:4@ M8 by 110 mm, stainless steel.

Tube for trunnion block (block below strine that carries the axle): 20 mm OD and 16 mm ID, 100 mm long and stainless steel. The M16 bolts fit through comfortably).

Mild steel tubes for hub: 76.2 mm OD, 3.2 mm wall thickness, 50 mm length. These were cut in half to provide rings for each side of the hub.

57.2 mm OD, 1.6 mm wall thickness, 50 mm length (www.metals4u.co.uk).

Black mild steel flat bar for wheel tyre: 40 mm width, 3 mm thickness and 1300 mm length (www.metals4u.co.uk). This mild steel has a black scale formed by oxidation during hot rolling. It bends well when cold.

 Although it was tempting to make the chassis before the hub and felloes were dry, I decided to wait as the dimensions of the frame and axle mounting blocks depended on the width of the hub. 

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Sketch of the mounting blocks showing the position of the steel tube for the axle and also the position of the hub. The height and width of the block is 50 mm and will be attached to the frame by bolts. The hub will run parallel to the frame and mounting blocks.

The ash mounting blocks were 250 mm long and 50 mm in cross section. A section was chiselled out to make the block flush with the hub and so allow the strines to diverge at an angle of 10 degrees, i.e. 5 degrees on each side. Holes were drilled 65 mm from the front for the stainless steel tubes where the axle will pass ensuring the correct angle. Holes were also drilled for the 10 mm galvanised bolts that will secure the blocks to the end of the strines. Finally, the blocks were shaped as shown. 

Axle trunnion  block showing the hole for the axle and the holes to attach it to the underside of the strine. Note that the axle hole is 5 degrees off normal to compensate for the divergence of the wheelbarrow arms.

The next job was to mount the wheel on the trunnions. This involved drilling holes in the hub to screw in the 20 mm stainless steel bolts. It is crucial that these holes are drilled in line so that the bolts pass through the trunnions and allow the wheel to spin. I don't know how the Wheelwrights did this ( I cannot find any written records of this) but after much thought I decided to clamp the trunnions in place and with the correct strine alignment, pass the auger through the tube in the trunnion and drill into the centre  of the hub with the wheel correctly mounted between the strines. In his way the trunnions guided  the auger. As the auger was going into the end-grain  of the hub, I used a bull-nosed auger (I had a no 8 or 4/8 inch auger available) to get to a depth of 10 cm and then opened this out with s normal no 9 auger to allow the bolt to thread into the hole in the hub. 

The underside of the mounted wheel with the stainless steel bolts (axle) in place passing through the trunnion steel sleeve into the hub. The mounting blocks were attached using two 6 inch 10 mm galvanised bolts.

The last stage with the no 9 auger and screwing the axle bolt, were done with the wheel mounted in a vice.

The trunnions (now attached to the wheel) were then attached to the underside of the strines using 6 inch length and 10 mm diameter bolts.

The next stage was to connect the two sloats in place and hence fix the geometry of the base of the Wheel Barrow. By doing this after mounting the wheel, allowed some slight adjustment in the strine alignment so that the wheel rotated freely.

Coffee Table or Side Table

 This is a project that will take a little time as I am using freshly felled ash for the legs that will be shaped from about 15 cm diameter ash trunks collected locally. These were free from any noticeable ash dieback that has affected many of the local trees in the woodlands in Devon and also in many other parts of the UK. 

Making the table legs using green ash

I have a slab of waney sweet chestnut (Teale & Sons Timber Ltd.) about  1180 mm long by 280 mm wide and 27 mm thick that should make two coffee or side tables with a little to spare. I plan to make the legs from green ash.

The ash was about 15 cm diameter and about 45 cm in length enabling me to split into four billets. The grain was reasonable straight and so cleaving with a froe was easy. The original log and three of the billets are shown above together with a rounded leg. Once cleaved the corners were removed using the froe and then chopped into shape using a carving axe. The final shaping of the billet for the pole lathe was done with a draw knife and large spoke shave. This was then mounted on the pole lathe (for spindle turning), and both ends were worked to produce a regular cylinder. The billet was then removed from the lathe and the wood between the ends removed with a large draw knife. This made the rough shaping on the lathe much easier. Once the spindle was turned (about 40 mm in diameter), the ends were sealed with oil/molten wax and then left to dry over several months. Several of these were made and stored.

 After air drying in the workshop, the legs were shaped on the pole lathe as shown below. The total length is 42 cm. The top 5 cm was made 1+ inch diameter for the first 5 cm and then widened to 39 mm over a length of 17 cm. The diameter of 39 mm was continued for a further 5 cm and decreased to 30 mm over a length of 10 cm. The final 5 cm was turned to 30 mm for the bottom of the legs. The part of the leg to be inserted into the top was left slightly greater in diameter then 1 inch and was finally adjusted on the lathe after the holes in the top were drilled. This insured a tight fit was achieved.

Ash table leg turned to size.

A piece of sweet chestnut was chosen with a shape that looked like a surf-board together with the obvious figuration resembling a wave pattern. My artistic talents are limited so I was helped by my daughter Bex to design the top. The shape was adjusted by sawing with a key-hole saw (to get a curved shape) and then planing with spokeshaves. The edge and rim of the board displayed spalting which was preserved to add some features. The surfaces had been rough cut so needed careful planing, scraping and finally sanding to 320 grit size.

Sweet chestnut top planed and sanded ready for drilling the 1 inch holes for the legs.

The positions of the legs were marked on the top. This was decided by calculating the distance of the top of the legs from the outside edge of the top so that the bottoms of the legs were not protruding. The angle of the legs was set at 12 degrees from vertical as this had proved good for previous tables and I had a jig to aid drilling at this this angle. This distance was 8.1 cm so this decided the approximate hole positions from the edges. The exact positions were made symmetrical along the length of the board and to give a good balance for the table.

Set-up using a rig to drill the 1 inch holes at 12 degrees from vertical.

The top after one treatment with danish oil and the legs ready for final adjustment and mounting. The oil brought-out the rich brown colour of the wood and the wave figuration.

Once the legs were dry (checked by weighing over 3 weeks), they were finished on the pole lathe by sanding and adjusting the top diameter to fit tightly into the pre-drilled holes. The tops were then sawn to length allowing about 2 mm of the legs to protrude. The legs were fitted by using glue and hardwood wedges with slits sawn in the leg tops. Care was taken to saw across the grain and fit with the wedges hammered in across the grain of the table top to avoid the risk of splitting with the grain. Once dry, the protruding leg tops were sawn off and finished with a chisel and sandpaper. 

The lengths of the legs were adjusted by placing the table on a flat surface, levelling the table as necessary by propping up the legs with cardboard. Then, a thin wooden slab was used to hold a pencil while it was rotated around each leg. This technique guarantees that the table is level and the legs are parallel to the ground.

The finished table after treatment with danish oil, Notice the wave pattern of the top and also the spalting of the sweet chestnut. The ash legs also show some grain patterns.

My artistic daughters design imitating a surf board!

The table was finished with three coats of danish oil and sanding between coats with 320 grit sand paper. Hopefully the table will last many years. 

Sycamore top and ash legs.

Watney edge sycamore top and ash legs.

Chip Carving, my experiences.

 In the past I have done some relief carving but haven't tried chip carving and in particular the Swiss method of chip carving described by Wayne Barton in his book "Chip Carving. Techniques and Patterns". In chip carving, wood is removed in pieces (i.e. chips) from the wood to make a design directly rather than shaving or sculpturing the wood to form a design as in carving or relief carving. In this method you only need two tools, a cutting knife and a stab knife. The cutting knife or Kerbschnitzen is named after chip carving or "engraving carving" used in Switzerland and Germany.

Cutting Knife made by Pfeil purchased from Classic Hand Tools, UK

My first attempts at chip carving were on the base of a display-stand made from green ash. The 1 1/2 inch hole is for the pedestal of the stand. I used the Pfeil cutting knife by holding it as shown in the diagrams in Wayne Barton's book. I found this a good natural hold and had no difficulty making the cuts although I did wonder about wearing a glove but I will see how I progress.

This is the tulip design shown in Wayne Barton's book with a 4 x 4 mm triangular border. 

I continued learning the techniques by following the designs and notes in Daniel Clay's book, "Chip Carving. Techniques for Carving Beautiful Patterns by Hand". This uses the methods described in Wayne Barton's book but with more information on particular designs and holding the knife. I used limewood for this and followed the layout given in the book. I did not use a stab knife at all and couldn't see a need. Also I found no need for gloves following the techniques described by these authors. 

Each of the faces has a design, in fact the ones illustrated on the front of Daniel Clay's book that are based on the "Seed of Life".

Rather than waste the test boards, I made two boxes. The first pictured above was made with rebate corners with strips of sapele and a yellow poplar top, just waste wood I had at hand. I found that the poplar was also easy to chip carve.

The practice boards, one and two, featured in the book, were carved from larger pieces of limewood and subsequently assembled into a larger box, this time incorporating beech pieces for the rebated corners.

The limewood practise boards made into a storage box. This time the corners are beech and the bottom was 5 mm plywood. The wood was finished with danish oil.

Working with larger chips can be challenging as it requires the knife to penetrate deeper, which sometimes makes the top of the blade uncomfortable. It's crucial to keep your thumb close to the knife blade, rest your knuckle on the workpiece, and adjust the blade's angle at intersections, all of which are detailed in the books. Among my preferred designs are the "Tulip Pot" featured on one side of the box and the "Seed of Life."

Reamer for Conical Dowels

 This is my experience on making a wooden reamer suitable for making tenons for chair legs etc. The advantages of this joint, in comparison to a straight cylindrical tenon, is that the leg cannot push through the joint because of its conical shape, the joint does not need gluing and can be dismantled for transporting. Also the joint does not need a wedge hammered across the tenon to tighten the joint. They were used routinely by Windsor chairmakers.

I made one by following some of the instructions on the "South Fork Timber" internet site with a few modifications. I started with an old keyhole saw blade and filed the teeth off using a hand file to give a metal blade about 24.3 mm wide at one end and sloping to 12 mm at the other. The length of the blade was 15 cm and gave an included angle of 5 degrees (i.e. the internal angle at the tip if originally pointed and hence a slope of 3 degrees off vertical). This will allow holes to be shaped to a maximum of near an inch at the wide part and 1 cm at the narrow. The choice of the included angle was determined by the blade available and how much filing I wanted to do. If the angle is too steep, e.g. 12 degrees, the surface contact area is reduced making it easier to rotate the tenon and making a less snug fit. If the angle is very small, e.g. 2 degrees, there will be greater contact area and hence force to break the tenon open especially if making a tenon in soft wood with a hard wood reamer. Six degrees seems to be a popular angle used in the past by chairmakers. There are more explanations on reamers on the blog of Tim Manney and also Elia Bizzarri, including some videos.

Having prepared the shape of the blade, making sure the sides were straight, I filed a 70 degree angle to each edge of the blade with the high points on opposite sides of the blade. The choice of sides will determine in which direction of rotation the reamer will cut. I hadn't realised this so my reamer cuts on a anticlockwise rotation. I honed the edge to 1200 grit at 70 degrees. (some advice the same angle as card scrapers, i.e.45 degrees). A cutting edge will be applied later using a hard chisel steel using the same technique used for card scrapers. 

The wooden part of the reamer was made from a piece of  oven dried beech dowel about 35 cm long and 2 inches diameter (I could have used a narrower dowel but this is what I had available). This was mounted on the pole lathe and the top handle area shaped as shown. The exact dimensions are not important the only criteria is that the handle must be of sufficient diameter to mount a cross-bar and the blade area must match the profile of the blade.

The reamer being shaped on the pole lathe. Note that the "pointed end" ,on the right, has a cylinder left on to aid later adjustments after the slot for the blade has been cut. This allows the reamer to be mounted on the lathe after cutting. The reamer blade is also shown,

 The profile of the blade portion was guided by using the blade itself with many minor alterations using the skew-edged chisel and finally coarse sandpaper. I found this difficult to get exactly right and so erred on the side of leaving a little too much wood on the sides.

A tricky part of the job is to mark the centre line on the blade portion and also where the handle holes need to be bored for the "T" bar. To do this I used the pole lathe bed with the reamer mounted. Luckily my attachment points on the lathe are exactly parallel to the bed. I place a board across the bed and with callipers measured the distance from the bed to the attachment points. I then attached the reamer tightly to the lathe and marked dots along the reamer blade portion of the wood using the pre-set calliper. It is important to get the calliper tips vertical. The other side of the reamer was also marked in the same way ensuring that the lather was not turned. The handle holes were marked in a similar way.

Marking the saw-cut line using the lathe bed and callipers

Maybe marking the saw-cut line is tricky but not as challenging as making the saw-cut itself. I checked my tenon saw and small panel saw for the width or kerf and checked this by sawing some waste wood and inserting the blade of the reamer. Both were fine making a tight fit for the reamer blade. I found the best method of sawing was to have the reamer at about 30 degrees from the horizontal and cutting short sections from each side and then mounting it vertically and cutting down. I did as much as possible with the tenon saw and finished with a panel saw. The pole lathe mounting cylinder was cut through but otherwise left intact so that the sawn reamer could be shut with a small cable tie and remounted on the lathe. The kerf of the saw-cut was cleaned-up using some 120 grit sandpaper backed with a thin card scraper. After checking the fit of the blade, the reamer was mounted on the lathe and fine adjustments made by sanding. The skew-chisel was not used. This was repeated a few times so that the blade protruded a fraction, less then 0.5 mm, from the reamer body. Finally, a narrow channel was carved with a chisel to accommodate waste wood cut in the tenon. This was about 1/8 inch wide cut on the high side of the blade edges.

A "T" bar was shaped from some dry hazel and gauged on the pole lathe to 5/8 inch diameter. A mounting hole was drilled through the reamer using the marks previously made using the lathe bed. After finishing the blade, the reamer was successfully tested and as expected, does need to be removed often from the tenon to release waste dust. 

Finished beech reamer with blade mounted and ready for use. The tool will be treated with linseed oil.

  An adjustment screw was added to aid the positioning of the blade. I used a short M5 bolt and drilled a hole 4.2 mm diameter and threaded this. Drilling the hole was tricky, so I used a small drill and made the hole from the bottom within the saw-slot upwards and at an angle of about 60 degrees. I then enlarged this to 4.2 mm diameter, drilled from the top, and gouged out space for the bolt head. The screw must be adjusted with the blade out to reduce stress on the beech threads.

Adjuster screw in position. 

I thought I'd add a few words on the geometry of the tenon. The shape is determined by the larger diameter of the tenon and the length of the hole i.e.,  thickness of the wood. For mine, with an included angle of 5 degrees, this leads to a formula : 

Small diameter side of tenon = Large diameter side of tenon - length of tenon (i.e. wood thickness) x 0.088

So if the wood is 30 mm thick and the maximum diameter is 15 mm, the smaller diameter will be 12.4 mm. The "mortice" part of the joint could then be cut on the pole lathe or alternatively, you could make a rounding plane to match the profile of the reamer.

Ash Cup Made on the Pole Lathe

 After making several shrink pots, I thought it would be educational to try and make an end-grain cup or tumbler using the spindle lathe and bowl lathe. I had a tip-up and tip-down gouge tool for bowl turning but also another gouge sometimes referred to as "the politician" that was designed for cutting into awkward spaces such as the inside of a cup. I am grateful to Yoav Elkayam for his detailed video about cup turning and taking the time to pass on his wisdom and experiences. I also gather that Jarrod Dahl from USA was instrumental in disseminating aspect of the craft of making different cups with a pole lathe on a visit to the UK.

I started the project with a log from a young local ash sapling from recent storm damage. This was shaped to a cylinder using an axe followed by a large draw-knife. A mandrel was mounted onto the cylinder for shaping the outside, bottom and top surface using a pole lathe. This was straight forward and gave nice patterned surfaces as shown below:

Outside surface of the ash tumbler about  9 cm diameter and 11 cm tall.

Bottom of mug after shaping with tip-up and -down tools to produce a concave surface.

Turning the inside of the mug using the "politician"

Double edged "politician" a bent gouge made by Ben Orford. This is a bent gouge with dual sharpened edges and also cutting blades after the hook.

The inside excavation was difficult and I found it more challenging than bowl turning because it is nearly impossible to get clean cuts and nice shavings because the gouge is cutting across the end-grain. Hence generally it is a noisy business and challenging to get the gouge in the right position when deeper in the tumbler. The choice of gouge at each stage depends on the individual and best to go with what ever works for you. However, I used the tip-up tool for the start of the excavation and the tip-down to shape the core as I penetrated into the cup. The wall was left quite wide to start with, about 8 mm, to help protect the side from the gouges. I found it difficult to use the tip-up tool when deeper in the cup and so used the "politician! to get deeper and later to thin the wall to about 5 mm.  I kept the base fairly thick at about 10 mm to stabilise the empty tumbler but also this is my first attempt and I was nervous about breaking the base when removing the core. The final reduction of the core near the base was mainly done with the "politician" but made a terrible noise producing mainly sawdust with the occasional shaving. It was at this stage I managed to slightly crack the core where the mandrel was inserted because I had turned the wall thickness too thin. I repaired this by gluing in the mandrel into the core and leaving it to set overnight. This worked fine and saved the day. However, it is a good lesson in that the core needs to be as small a diameter as possible to allow space for the gouge, but remain strong. In general woods are much stronger along the grain than across, so that the core can be narrower with end-grain turning than with bowl turning. So in the later, the core is generally greater than 1 inch and can be snapped at this size but with end-grain, the diameter needs to be less than 1/2 inch. Hence great care is needed in removing the core with end-grain turning.

Inside of tumbler after chiselling the bottom of the core ready to twist it from the bottom.

Once the base of the core was about 1.5 cm diameter, the tumbler was removed from the pole lathe and the core was chiselled as shown in the above photograph. It then easily twisted away from the base.

Core after twisting off the base. 

The inside bottom of the cup was gouged level using a hook-knife and gouge. The outside of the base was carved with a straight chisel and mallet. It is difficult chiselling/gouging across the end-grain so the less you can leave of this, the better.

View of the outside of the tumbler after chiselling the bottom leaving a concave surface. 

I finished of the inside of the cup with a shallow hook knife (the same one I use for finishing the inside of shrink pots). I was not able to get a smooth surface with the bowl carving gouges so this proved a easy solution.

Finished cup after one treatment with walnut oil,

Inside of the cup showing the grain pattern.

The cup was treated three times with walnut oil and left to dry over a week. I then tried testing it by filling with cold water and leaving it at room temperature. After about 10 minutes there was some weeping on the bottom, a few drops of water appeared. I then tried with a cup of hot tea and this also showed some weeping on the base. There was no sign of weeping on the sides of the cup. I guess this is to be expected as the end-grain is effectively small vertical capillaries. I then tried soaking the base (to a depth of about 1 cm) both inside and out (standing it in a bowl) for 24 hours using pure tung oil (food safe). After soaking, I drained off the tung oil and left the cup to dry at room temperature for a further 24 hours after which I removed excess oil with a rag and then left the cup to dry at room temperature for a week. On testing again, I found a few drops forming on the base but not sufficient to cause problems in use. I intent to polish the outside with beeswax and leave it at that to see how it performs in the longer term.

Shrink Pots

First Shrink Pot. It seems that Greenwood workers like to make these, and having read about them, I thought I would give them a try. Basically the principle is straight forward but I expect that the skill is something that develops with experience. The job starts with a branch of green wood. The diameter isn't crucial but needs to be big enough to be able to work inside the pot. I used a stem of hazel wood about 3 inches in diameter and 7 inches long. The idea is to remove the inside of the log to make it hollow, the shape can reflect the original form of the branch or stem or you can modify it by carving the outside later and even doing some pyrography on the outside for decoration. At this stage the bark can be removed or left on, and then a narrow channel made around the inside circumference to which the bottom can be inserted. The bottom must be dried timber so that when the pot dries and shrinks, the bottom is held firmly in place.

My first task was to select the hazel and remove as much internal wood as I could be drilling, but leaving about 3/8 th inch thickness wall.

Using a 1 1/4 inch bull-nosed auger to hollow-out the pot.

As I was drilling into the end grain of the log, I found that a bull-nosed auger did a good job of removing wood quickly and proved effective. I'm sure there are lots of ways to drill out the centre e.g. just making one hole and using a carving knife to remove wood to get a good diameter.

After drilling four holes, I removed the rest of the wood using a gauge and crook knife.

Gauging out the wood between the holes.

I should have taken more care at this stage as it proven easy to tear-out too much of the wall, making it too thin and a weak spot when the pot shrinks.

This is the bottom of the pot after making the rim channel to eventually hold the bottom piece of wood. As you can see the wall of the bottom is particularly thin in one place.

The bottom was sawn and planed to 5 mm thickness, from of a piece of air-dried hazel. The shape was carefully scribed on the bottom through the inside of the pot also marking the orientation. The size and edges were cut or filed to a "v" shape so that the plate fitted neatly into the pot. This clicked into place easily but wasn't loose. This I think is where experience will be invaluable in judging the tightness of the fit according to the size and wall thickness of the pot. Too loose and shrinkage will not hold the plate and if it  is too tight, the base may force the pot sides to split.

Base plate now inserted.

It doesn't appear critical, but the shape of the inside channel was determined by the marking gauge scribe, i.e. the upper wall of the channel was vertical to the side of the wall, and the lower part of the channel was "v" shaped, i.e. sloped from the wall. I think the plate needs to be pointed around the outer rim to ease fitting and also to make it easier for the walls to contract on drying and press against the   plate.

The pot after treating with oil. 

The mistake with the wall thickness did lead to a small 1 mm crack near the bottom of the pot that I filled with brown epoxy resin so that the pot wasn't wasted. 

After drying for a few days, I made a lid from some air-dried hazel including a knob (made on the pole lathe from some hazel). Fitting the lid was tricky because of the uneven shape. First, the lid was planed to 1/2 inch thickness and the shaped with a coping saw and small spokeshave. The kerfing plane (with a fine toothed blade) was used to mark and saw one side of a rebate in the lid. The remainder was then chiselled out and small adjustments were made using a fine wood file. This took some time with minor adjustments until the fit was good.

The outside of the pot was then decorated by gauging-out dimples and marking their perimeter by pyrography.

The pot with an hazel lid after the sides were gauged and further decorated by pyrography.

This shows the other side of the pot after pyrography. The split has been filled with coloured epoxy and enlarged as tree branches!!

Anyway, this is my first shrink pot and I have learned a lot about the techniques so that I look forward to trying another.

Second Shrink Pot.

Soon after making that, I tried some more shrink pots using the same stem of hazel and basically the same method but taking more care of the excavations. I have a shallow crook knife that I hadn't found to be very useful for spoon or kuksa carving, but came into its own when carving-out the inside faces of the pots. I also sharpened the edge on the marking gauge and used a small gauge to make the channel in the base. This time a used a piece of dried ash for the base.

Here you can see the channel carved in the inside of the second pot

Second pot left to dry for a couple of weeks before making the top.

Third Shrink Pot.  I decided to use a diameter to height ratio of 1.6 (the so called magic ratio) so made the third pot slightly higher, 6 inches. The wood and methodology were the same as I used making the other pots but I needed to level the base and top to get even surfaces after sawing. This time I used a piece of beech for the base and the fitting went well, just a case of iterative adjustments to get a tight fit.  I continued to make a "v" shape around the edge of the circumference of the bottom plate, mostly using a small spokeshave and fine wood file. Six inches is probably the deepest I'd want to go at this diameter with the carving tools that I have. There was a little movement after fitting the base that soon went after a day drying.

The third pot after fitting the base. Notice some detail on the outside because of knots.

The two larger pots were left to dry for a couple of weeks (temperatures outside around 17 C) before making the lids from kiln dried beech.

Pots left to dry.

Shrink Pot Lids.

I made three lids. One was from some hazel that turned out to be still drying and two from some kiln dried beech. The hazel lid was fine as I was able to adjust the fit after it dried. I will describe the method I used to make the other two lids.

I started with a square of beech (2.5 cm thickness) and marked the outside circumference around the top of the pot and then drew a line about 5 mm outside of this to allow the lid to overlap the top of the pot.  I then used a turning saw to get the right basic shape as shown:

Cutting the lid shape.

The lid was then planed to shape using a small spokeshave.

The underside of the lid after planing and marking for the rebate. The crosses show the wood to be removed to the depth of the rebate.

The width of the pot's rim was measured with a vernier and another mark made on the bottom of the lid to show the position of the inside edge of the pot. This is the depth of the rebate for the lid to fit the pot. This means it is important to try and get the upper edge of the rim the same thickness around the circumference of the pot.

The rebate was then marked to the approximate depth around the circumference of the lid using the kerfing plane with a fine toothed blade:

The kerfing plane being used to mark the position of the rebate. The depth of the cut was marked on the plane blade,

The rebate was then chiselled being careful to watch the direction of the grain and avoid any splitting.

The rebate being chiselled to the inner mark to allow the lid to fit inside the pot.

The rebate was cleaned and checked for the fit to the pot. It is important to have a pencil mark to check the orientation of the lid. It took some time to fine-tune the side of the rebate to fit the pot. I did this by fitting one end into place and then marking the points were there was some interference and then chiselling around the side as needed. In fact, the pencil line as marked on the inside gave a close fit.

The lid was then placed on the pot and the overlap from the pot sides was adjusted to 4 mm and then planed to size with a small spokeshave. The top of the lid was then shaped so that the centre area for fitting a knob was flat, but the rest curved to give the outer thickness of  5 mm. A knob for the top was made from hazel on the pole lathe and left to dry before fitting.

The underside of the lid carved to fit the inside of the pot with a small overhang on top of the pot.

The domed top of the lid that is the same shape as the top of the pot with a 4 mm overhang. The photos also shows two knobs made for the lid. 

I made a second lid in the same way but left less overhang on the side. I also embellished the knots on the second pot by pyrography.

The finished pots after treatment with Danish oil.

The pots took longer to dry than I'd expected as indicated by the fit of the lids. I left them another month (in the summer) and then adjusted them as needed and this seems to have done the trick. This means they took about two months to dry in warm and dry conditions.

 Note:  These are some notes from Tomas provided to Dave Fisher (on Pinterest) about their construction that might be helpful in future work (quoting) and in getting a water tight seal at the bottom of the pot (or box).

"These kind of shrink boxes were quite common in the shepherd culture of Eastern Europe where I live. A while ago I studied their construction a bit and found the following:

1. The box is made from harder wood while the bottom from a very dry softwood, usually pine.

2. The edges on the bottom are shaped not in a V shape but rather in I/ shape such that the flat part (I) id heading inside the box.

3. The groove in the box is thin, not so shallow and , if possible, in a I/ shape with a smaller angle of the edge of the bottom.

4. Before putting the bottom, they dried it in a stove (or near a fire) while keeping the bottom of the box in hot water. Thus, when they put the bottom to the box, the dry bottom started to expand, the boiled box started to shrink and since the groove is with a smaller angle and the edge of the bottom is with a larger these two were tightened well.

5. In some places they used to fill the groove with a tiny band of dry reed mace (they used to use it also for isolating barrels. "

I believe that Reed Mace is the same as Bulrush. 

As I am using greenwood for the pot, I'm not sure that putting the pot in hot water is necessary and that the natural shrinkage on drying should be enough. However, the tips on the groove shape are interesting and I will try this in future.

Shape of grooves to get a water-tight seal, perhaps!

Forth shrink pot.

My next pot was from some windfall spalted sycamore. This was 11 cm in height and 9 cm outside diameter. This was excavated using a 1 1/8 inch bull-nosed auger and finished in the way described above with a base of poplar made as described in the diagram above.

The ash pot ready to dry.

The polar base fitted leaving some space for the pot to shrink whilst drying.

The first coat of milk-paint. 

I had decided to decorate this pot by relief carving some details on the surface, hanging leaves, and use milk-paint to enhance the design. I used a 1:2 powder to water mix for the top and bottom rims and a more diluted mix (1:4) for the leaves. I initially tried a very dilute mix on the entire outside but this showed more on the spalted wood and less on the other. This is my first attempt at using milk-paint.

After three coats of milk-paint and some "spotting" to mimic the effects of the spalted area of the pot.

The finished pot after a final treatment with danish oil.

The application of danish oil after leaving the three coats of milk-paint to dry for a day, produced a brighter sheen.

Fifth shrink pot.

This was also made from some spalted sycamore but had a larger diameter base and was more difficult to carve-out because of the grain.

Drilling three holes through the branch with a 1 1/4 inch bit.

Multicolours revealed as the bark and cambian are peeled away. The underlying wood was spalted.

The outerlayers were removed with a drawknife and spokeshave and a poplar bottom cut for insertion. This was more difficult because of the irregular cross section of the branch.

Pot 5 left to dry with the bottom inserted. Note the bluish spalted colour of the wood.

Final version after painting and relief carving.

Sixth shrink pot or tube.

Another option is to make shrink tubes. Shrink pots need to be of sufficient diameter to excavate easily starting with a drilled-out hole or holes and working from there with a gauge or crook- knife. However, the other obvious option is to use a large drill to make the inside without any additional carving. 

I tried this with a freshly cut piece of hazel of about two inches diameter, as an experiment. I drilled this with a 1 1/8 th inch bull-nosed auger by drilling from each end and meeting in the middle. As this was still very green, it was left to dry for a week (at 10 to 15 C in the workshop). Another option is to shape the outside of the green wood on the pole lathe before cutting the central hole.

Tube of hazel 14 cm in length and drilled to 1 1/8 th inch inside and left to dry.

View of the ash bottom before shrinking.

View of the hazel top before drying and completing the carving.

Finished tube used as a desk pencil holder

.

The tube was treated with danish oil (1 coat) and then some balloons carved out to show the underlying whiter wood. Finally, the balloon perimeters were outlined with a pyrography pen. This kept the natural wood effect.

I did try drilling a hole to make a tube but leaving a base in place (i.e. not drilling right through the tube) but both times I tried this, the auger split the the bottom and the sides when the drill reached about 2 cm from the bottom. I did have some success by leaving the sides of the tube thick, about 1 cm, with a smaller central hole. 

Seventh shrink pot made from a branch of ash.

The pot after shaping and fitting a bottom.

This one was made from fresh green wood about 7 cm outside diameter and 14 cm in length. This time I drilled a 1 1/4 inch diameter hole in the centre, drilling from both ends to the centre. The pot was excavated using a bent gauge and skew-knife leaving the side about 8 mm thick. A bottom of dried poplar was fitted as described before and a top also shaped to fit inside the pot, leaving a little room for contraction of the pot as it dries. This will be glued to a wider top covering the rim as described below.

View of the bottom of the pot before drying.

I made the top of two pieces of poplar, one that fitted inside the top and another glued on top to fit the outside diameter of the pot. This method is perhaps easier than making the top from one piece of wood because the inside marking and fitting is simplified. 

The top carved to shape.

The side of the pot was carved by making vertical grooves that lined with the top channels to produce a serrated surface.  A knob was also carved from a piece of dried hazel and shaped to complement the top. A hole of 1/2 inch diameter was drilled to accommodate the knob and the stem fixed from the inside with an hardwood wedge. The pot was left to dry for a few days before treating with danish oil. 

Finished ash pot after treatment of the outside with danish oil.

Eighth Pot...Not shrink but a vase!

This was just a idea of making a vase without removing the base but keeping the internal diameter quite small. This will be good as a dried flower vase or with a glass jar inserted, as a flower jar.

I started with a green ash log that happened to be oval in cross-section so not ideal for the pole lathe but this was just a trial to see how the piece shaped-up. The end-grains were planed parallel and the centres estimated. The log was trimmed a little by axe and draw-knife to get cylindrical shapes at both ends but leaving as much bark on in the middle section. This was then mounted on the spindle lathe and each end shaped with the centre section and bark left intact ready for further hand-carving. I then converted the lathe to its bowl carving configuration and used the tip-up and tip-down gouge tools to make a bowl like base or stand with a concave centre. This would allow some movement in the wood when drying but keep a stable base for standing. Some finer details were also gouged in the log at this stage, see photo below. 

After the pole lathe work was completed, the log was removed and mounted in wooden screw-vice to drill the central hole. This was done easily with  1 1/4 inch bull-nosed auger and brace being careful to keep the hole central and finishing about 1 inch above the bottom. The top of the central hole was fluted with some carving gouges.

Vase showing some ash bark left after turning and the central holder drilled.

The other side of the vase were the bark was removed and some pyrography details added, i.e. ash leaves and seeds. The channels on this side were hand carved.

Finished ash vase after sanding and treating with a coat of danish oil.
The vase was 15 cm tall and 8 cm wide at it's widest point and the opening was 4 cm diameter.

The bulkier wall thickness and weight of the vase should make it stable and ideal for displaying dried flowers.